The Board Of Education For The City Of Brooklyn - 2454 Words

The Board of Education dates back to 1842. According to the New York City Department of Records, the Board of Education was known as the Board of Education of the City of Brooklyn from 1853 – 1897 (www.nyc.gov). During that time period, records documented educational policy, and school system administration. The Board of Education underwent several transformations. Although the school system as stated by the Department of Records (www.nyc.gov) was known as the Board of Education of the city of Brooklyn, there were also boards in the borough of Manhattan, Bronx, Queens and Richmond. Consolidation of the boards occurred from 1898 – 1901. At that time a central board was established, superintendents of schools, school regulations, and†¦show more content†¦The Board of Education was under Chancellor, Harvey Scribner, who started the process of working out the responsibilities of the central board, community districts, teachers, along with parents and students. Chancellors served to monitor the workings of the board members and the 32 districts. However, in 2002 the New York City Board of Education went under mayoral control and became the New York City Department of Education. The City of New York and the appointed chancellor controls all public schools in the five boroughs. The Mayor Controls the Department of Education. The appointed chancellor and deputies oversee the operations of the Department of Education. (www.nyc.gov). Schools are no longer under the jurisdiction of a district office. Although districts are no longer in existence, schoo ls are still identified by their designated districts (i.e.; 17K246). The New York City Department of Education vision is that education is the committed to working collaboratively with parents, families, educators and communities to improve student achievement, and ensure that every child graduates from high school prepared for college, a career and a future as a productive adult (www.nycenet.edu). Each school in the NYC Department of education is responsible for the creation of their vision or mission. Walt Whitman Middle School mission statement affirms that† its mission is to create an environment that emphasizes academic excellence and fosters lifelongShow MoreRelatedThe Public School Education System Essay1425 Words   |  6 PagesYork City consists of five boroughs, Manhattan, the Bronx, Queens, Brooklyn, and Staten Island. The borough that I reside in is Brooklyn. Brooklyn has approximately 2.592 million people inhabiting this district and approximately 23.4 percent of individuals who reside in Brooklyn, NY come from a low-income house hold or in other words come from poverty. With catholic and private schools being expensive, people have to rely on the education system to provide their children with a good education. InRead MoreThe Place I Am Living Right Now One1662 Words   |  7 Pages The place I am living right now one can easily see the ocean in Brooklyn NY. 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What You Should Do to Find Out About Common Application Essay Before Youre Left Behind

What You Should Do to Find Out About Common Application Essay Before You're Left Behind The Basic Facts of Common Application Essay It's difficult to get started writing the college essay application. The application essay is a typical portion of the university and college. A standard application essay is described as college admission essay, which is requested to write whenever you are trying for any admission practice. During its core, the college application essay is about reflection. Let's say you must purchase essay for college. Two new essay options are added, and a number of the previous questions are revised. After all, the college would like to understand what you're about. The majority of the colleges utilize the typical application essay prompts. Some colleges or universities supply you with a list of essay questions but in many instances, you are going to be given the chance to think up a fantastic essay question and topic all on your own and then write about doing it. Given that the absolute most competitive colleges in the nation generally ask you to compose multiple supplemental essays and short answer questions past the major Common Application essay, it's more important than ever to acquire the top-of-the-line assistance that can create a difference in the procedure. A History of Common Application Essay Refuted Actually understand what the driver of the correct essay structure car got stuck. No prompt is inherently superior than every other. Just don't wait over a day or two, particularly in case you have just submitted an application to fulfill a deadline like early act ion or early choice. Make certain you schedule sufficient time for an exhaustive review. Common Application Essay Ideas Your solution shouldn't be a book report. If a question arises that you can't locate the response to, don't hesitate to get in touch with us anytime. Think beyond the box as you answer the subsequent questions. Be ready for the next questions and prompts. After the most important text, it is necessary to include things like a great conclusion. Your main focus at the moment must be to tap in that internal dialogue, and permit us to spectate. Select a few people that you trust to assist you with the editing procedure and stick with them. Before you consider writing an answer to the prompt, you must read the prompt carefully. Consider your thoughts and aspirations and describe how a Cornell Engineering education would enable you to leverage technological problem-solving to enhance the world we reside in. Colleges are interested in a feeling of maturity and introspectionpinpoint the transformation and demonstrate your private growth. The university would like to guarantee validation through endearing success. The Upside to Common Application Essay Have you ever seen your mother seem worried and, for the very first time, notice she is not only your own personal valet but an actual individual. The work, which demands the complete a ttention and a crystal clear mind. The actual individuals highly praise our essay help site. Although my parents have lived in the USA for 20 decades, they've instilled in my brother and me their Japanese lifestyle. What You Should Do About Common Application Essay Beginning in the Next Six Minutes You should talk to your high school counselor if you are not certain which test might be best for you. Information regarding campus safety and security can help you in your choice to apply. When you submit your college application you should examine the admissions section of the site to see whether there's a transcript request form that you must send to your high school. Therefore, if you're thinking about applying to college within the next calendar year, you will probably complete the frequent application. At the exact same time, you are going to impress the college admissions folks greatly if it is possible to present your capacity to learn from your failures and mistakes. Your ideas ought to be delivered strongly in order to describe you as a strong applicant for your fantasy college. Furthermore, there's an allowance to use the identical funny approach utilized by the college. The very first thing you ought to do is visit the college website that you want to attend and complete an application. Common Application Essay Help! The usual application essay is the best platform upon which. The aim of the Common App is the exact same too. The average application is among three strategies to apply to yale for freshman. While the Fall 2018 application won't be live until August 2017, we hope you are going to have the opportunity to think about your responses.

Business Writing Critical Review

Question: Write about theBusiness Writing Critical Review. Answer: Introduction: Sales people are the frontline personnel of the organisation. From that perspective it can be said that they are the face of the company to the customer. Customer can find the attitude of the company after interacting with the sales people of the organisation. They can develop the first impression regarding the organisation (Perez et al., 2014). The behaviour and the performance of the sales people can develop the impression regarding the organisation and the value it is offering to the customer. If the customer is satisfied by the behaviour and the performance of the sales people they accept the value offering of the organisation. In this case sometime sales people can play the role of an entrepreneur (Todosijevi?, et al., 2014). In this case the organisation can utilise the spirit of entrepreneurship of the sales people. In their article Douglas Amyx, Shahid N. Bhuian, and G. David Shows indicated that attitude of the sales people and verbally illustrated the possible outcome the c ompany can expect out of this behaviour of the sales personnel of the organisation. There are two relevant tem has been use in this analysis one is customer value base that does indicate the value used to receive by the customer instead of the offered price of for the product or service. Psychological or sociological theories have been applied on the basis of social exchange theory. In another article Stave W. Martin Has describe the exact level of performance of the sales personnel. The attitude and the orientation of the sales people have been described by the writer. Bother auricle made an attempt to judge and understand the motivation and the application of the motivation in the field of sales and marketing by the sales people. Key Arguments: Entrepreneurial activity has a common behavioural trait that can be applicable to any entrepreneur. The attitude of the entrepreneur is different than the ordinary people. The ability of innovation, proactive behaviour, risk taking attitude is the behavioural pattern of the entrepreneur. In this article the writers has substantiate their argument in this direction. This study is based on a formed hypothesis that is there is communality among the behaviour of the sales people and the entrepreneur (Edelkamp, Greulich, 2014). In order to claim their argument the writers indicated towards the autonomy that used to enjoy by the sales people to convince the clients. Organisations are offering this power to them on the basis of the sales performance that can be produced by the sales people by enhancing the sales revenue and the quantity of sales of the organisation. Problem solving is another important attitude of the entrepreneur at the same time it can enhance the credibility of the entr epreneur and the market value offering of the enterprise or the organisation they are governing. The same trait of behaviour is one of the major characteristics of the sales people of the organisation. Addressing the customers issue is one of the responsibilities of the sales person of the organisation. To the customer sales person is the face of the organisation. The customers are willing to interact with them in order to solve the problem they are facing the problem may get emerged out of the purchase of the product. Post purchase issue is one of major issue in the area of sales and marketing (Cri?an et al., 2016). Sales person can coordinate with customer regarding the post purchase problem related issue. In the area they are sharing their attitude with entrepreneur. Innovation is one of the major qualities of the entrepreneur. In most of the cases they do offer an innovative solution of the problem and they can get the market patronage out of it (Taylor, 2015). The same trait us ed maintained by the sales people they do offer different type of innovative solution of the existing problem. Out of this offering they can enhance the credibility and the acceptability to the customer. Risk taking is also the part of sales personnel. Like entrepreneur they take risk to gain the sale out of this. The whole endeavour of the salespeople in this respect directed toward a long term relationship with the customer. In this article the author mention the role of relationship marketing in the contemporary marketing scenario. The farther implication of this trend can lead towards sustainability. Relationship marketing has become one of the prominent trends of the contemporary marketing practice. In the article the authors has explain the relevance of this type of marketing and the relation of that with the approach of the entrepreneur. Long term relationship is one of the issues behind the relationship marketing in this regard. The independent business owners are putting st ress on this issue because sustainability is one of the basic factors for the independent enterprise (Rachan, 2016). In the second article the writer has described after taking the survey of 1000 sales personnel the top sales personnel is he who has achieved 125% of the target that has assigned on him (Martin, 2016).from this perspective it can be said that he achievement is one of the major issue for the sales personnel. Long term relation can help the sales personnel to gain constant achievement that can help his carrier too. Difference in the Arguments: Despite certain similarity there is a difference of the arguments between the authors of the two articles. In the second article the writer Steve Martin has stated that money is the only major motivator for the sales personnel but in the first article the authors said apart from money sustainability is one of the major motivator of them. That is reason the behaviour of the sales personnel adopts the trait and the nature of the independent business man. Sustainability is one of the major factors of the business strategy (Amyx, Bhuian and Shows, 2016). In the second article the writer Steve Martin described the emotional issue influence the customer to avail the service from the sales person (Martin, 2016) bout in the first article the writers put stress on the personal quality of the sales personnel to attract the patronage of the customer. In the case the writers described the role of innovativeness, proactive behaviour and risk taking. These faculties of the sales personnel lead the m to earn customer satisfaction and gain the sales target. These faculties are available in the behaviour of the individual entrepreneur the writers find semblance among these two categories of people in this regard. Recommendation: Sales personnel of the organisation do harbour the quality of the independent entrepreneur. On the basis of the personal observation it can be said the process of direct marketing is related with the achievement of the individual and the performance used to get counted on that basis. In this study the author has identified three qualities of the independent business owner those are getting reflected in the behavioural trait of the sales personnel those are innovativeness, pro activeness and risk taking activities. These attitudes are important for the sales personnel of the organisation too (Lee Pinheiro, 2014). According to the finding of the study the entrepreneurial qualities of the sales people are treated as the high order factor work as the positive influence over the customer because these are directly connected with customer satisfaction. The issue of commitment ensure the level of the satisfaction that a customer may get out of this behaviour of the sales personnel of the o rganisation. These behaviours are essential from the perspective of the sales personnel too ( Escario et al.,2015). The success in the sales process is largely depending up on the level of customer satisfaction. The entrepreneurial quality of the sales person enhances the sales power of the individual. The motivational level of the sales personnel as well as the purchaser gat increase out of that. From that perspective in can be recommended the adaptation of the entrepreneurial quality can be judge as the ideal behaviourial trait of sales personnel of the organisation. In the second article the writer Steve Martin has shared different important information these information can be the issue of consideration for the recommendation. According to Martin 50% of the marketing professionals are goal oriented. All the endeavour they used to adopt to satisfy the goal that they have envisage (Martin, 2016). This goal orientation can be the part of the enterprise behaviour of the sales person nel. So the recommendation can be made on the basis of goal orientation the organisation can cultivate the enthusiasm of the sales personnel and can channelize them towards the right direction to accomplish that goal. Conclusion: In conclusion it can be said that the articles Customer-sales people relationship Influence of sales people entrepreneurial behaviours and A Portrait of over performing salesperson are eye opener in its own quality, the article has indicated one of the most significant issues those are related with the attitude development of the individual working personnel. The attitude of sales is directly connected with the attitude that harbour by the business people such as owner of the small business. In the study of Steve Martin the reality of the attitude of the sales personnel has been articulated the sales executives wants to comply with the attitude of the customer(Martin, 2016). Same this applicable to the business owner, in this case the owner has responsibility to make sales because in this case he is the bread earner for the organisation. The customer satisfaction is the responsibility of the owner because the level of satisfaction can offer the sustainability to the business. The sam e attitude does harbour by the sales personnel of the organisation. Despite being an employed staff of the organisation a sales person has to interact with the customer as independent business owner. Sustainability is also one of the major issues for him. The right attitude for sales is to develop satisfaction of the customer through the product as well as post purchase service that is the reason the sales personnel has adopt the quality of innovation, pro activeness and risk taking attitude from the independent business person to progress in the verge of success ( Ruiz et al.,2014), Reference: Amyx, D., Bhuian, S. and Shows, G. (2016). Customer-salespeople relationship Influence of salespeople entrepreneurial behaviours.Marketing Intelligence Planning, 34(5), pp.586 - 598. Cri?an, G. C., Nechita, E., Palade, V. (2016). Ant-based system analysis on the traveling salesman problem under real-world settings. InCombinations of Intelligent Methods and Applications(pp. 39-59). Springer International Publishing. Edelkamp, S., Greulich, C. (2014, August). Solving physical traveling salesman problems with policy adaptation. InComputational Intelligence and Games (CIG), 2014 IEEE Conference on(pp. 1-8). IEEE. Escario, J. B., Jimenez, J. F., Giron-Sierra, J. M. (2015). Ant colony extended: experiments on the travelling salesman problem.Expert Systems with Applications,42(1), 390-410. Lee, S., Pinheiro, V. (2014). Outsourcing sport sponsorship sales to a sport management class: Understanding the benefits and risks.Journal of Brand Strategy,3(2), 184-192. Martin,S.(2016). A Portrait of overperforming salesperson. Harverd Business Review, Perez, D., Powley, E. J., Whitehouse, D., Rohlfshagen, P., Samothrakis, S., Cowling, P. I., Lucas, S. M. (2014). Solving the physical traveling salesman problem: Tree search and macro actions.IEEE Transactions on Computational Intelligence and AI in Games,6(1), 31-45. Rachan, W. (2016).Salesmanship: Enterprise Manager's Guide. Trafford Publishing. Ruiz, M., Costal, D., Espaa, S., Franch, X., Pastor, . (2014, June). Integrating the goal and business process perspectives in information system analysis. InInternational Conference on Advanced Information Systems Engineering(pp. 332-346). Springer International Publishing. Taylor, G. (2015). Browsing, salesmanship, and obfuscation. Todosijevi?, R., Mjirda, A., Mladenovi?, M., Hanafi, S., Gendron, B. (2014). A general variable neighborhood search variants for the travelling salesman problem with draft limits.Optimization Letters, 1-10.

Modals in Different Varieties of English

Introduction The modern use of some words can be considered wrong though the changes that are natural for the language take place and should be treated as the transitional period in formation of new grammar and vocabulary. In this respect, I would like to analyse the use of modal words and modal verbs in different varieties of English by contemporary speakers comparing those with the results received a few decades earlier.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Modals in Different Varieties of English specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More So, I would like to trace the relation between the origin of speakers and their ability to use modals correctly taking into account the current situation in the language environment and the one that occurred a few decades earlier with regard to the varieties of British and American English in different age groups. Aim and Scope The main purpose of this paper consists in investigati ng the use of modal verbs and expressions in different varieties of English language including mostly the difference between American and British English. Besides, it is necessary to analyse the peculiarities of use of modals by teenagers and children with the help of examples from different corpora of English language. These corpora include examples of speech from different settings and origins including different age groups, namely children and teenagers, various sources of information such as documents and newspaper articles. One of the major peculiarities of these corpora is the variety of genres including press reportage, editorials, reviews of books and music, letters, periodicals, catalogues and reports as well as fiction, science fiction, adventure, humour, and romance. Every source will be analysed with regard to the frequency of use of modals in different functions and shifts in the meaning conveyed with the help of modals that can be observed in terms of the period to whi ch the examples refer. Besides, it is also necessary to investigate how children and teenagers were affected by changes in the meaning and the frequency of use of modals by adults and teenagers/children. Previous Work As a rule, linguists investigate the most interesting aspects of the language usage in terms of results of the researches to be used in practice. In this respect, the changes that occurred in the use of modals can be related to the shifts in preferences of using modals and quasi-modals. Besides, population of different continents uses modals and quasi-modals with different frequency as well as representatives of different generations. Moreover, the results of the research can be influenced by the origin of the example taking into account the oral speech and written language because the genre to which the example is referred characterises the formality.Advertising Looking for research paper on linguistics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Thus, formal language is supposed to contain more modals whereas informal language is sure to contain more quasi-modals and fewer modals. As reported by Collins, the shift in the use of modals can be seen while comparing the results from British and American English-speaking population in the early 1960s and in the early 1990s respectively (7). These findings analyse the figures presented in studies by Leech (2003), smith (2003), and Mair and Leech (2006) who investigated the changes that took place in the use of modals taking into account American and British varieties of English language. Every member of the society has a right to express his/her thoughts in different ways. The variety of ways can be seen from the COLT corpus that includes Bergen Corpus of London Teenage English being a vivid representation of variety of nonverbal means of communication among teenagers and communication of teenagers with members of their families including other siblings a nd parents, teachers, and strangers. As a rule, teenagers use more informal language when they communicate with peers; this variant of communication differs greatly from the language used by teenagers with parents and teachers. However, the main aim of the current research is to investigate the frequency of use of different modals and quasi-modals and the percentage of use taking into account modals and quasi-modals ratio in the American corpus primarily. As suggested by Krug, the attention to quasi-modals is not sufficient in terms of scholarly articles and researches conducted on this issue (1). The researcher analyses the modals and quasi-modals with regard to their grammaticalization and categories typical for modals: â€Å"the most salient determinants in the present case are almost certainly phonological form, morphosyntactic properties and discourse frequency of potential category members† (Krug 3). Though many researchers have compared and contrasted the frequency of using different parts of speech and various phrases and word combinations by native speakers of English with regard to different dialects and genres, it is still necessary to investigate the number of modal used in different periods with regard to information from the Corpus of historical American English, contemporary situation with regard to the information from the Corpus of contemporary American English, and contrast the number of modals used by Americans with the one used by users of the British variety of English with regard to the information from the British national corpus. In other words, the current research is focused on the analysis of data from these three corpora using the theoretical background about the use of modals from researches conducted by other scholars. Material The nature of the primary research consists in choosing modals for analysis and comparing the frequency of use of modals in sources of different genres and in spoken language taking into account the situation in American variety of English a hundred years earlier and contemporary situation. I have used the corpora of English language to investigate the frequency of use of modals in different varieties of English though the primary purpose of the research was to compare and contrast the findings from the British variant of English and American variant of English with regard to the historical development of the latter.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Modals in Different Varieties of English specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In this respect, the most influential limitation was the lack of information on the historical development of the British variant of English over a long period of time. As the changes in the American variant of English could be explored from 1810 to 2000, the changes in the British variant of English could be explored only regarding the results from two last decades dating from 199 0 till 2010. Though I used the modals and quasi-modals that are typical of the English language with regard to all varieties of the language, I faced the difficulties concerning the variety of combinations that were typical of the modals and quasi-modals. In other words, further research could focus on the combinations of other parts of speech with modals and the nature of expressions in terms of mood (imperative or subjunctive) and the attitude of the author of the utterance. So, the main sources of data include the Corpus of Contemporary American English, the Corpus of Historical American English, and the British National Corpus. I used the Corpus of Contemporary American English to see the frequency of occurrence of different modals in spoken language, fiction, articles from magazines, newspaper articles, and academic sources with regard to the period (1990-2010) to which the use refers. The Corpus of Historical American English provides researchers with a richer variety of resul ts as it includes the examples of speech dating from 1810 till 2000. In this respect, I was able to analyse the frequency of use of modals in different periods of time with regard to the sources they appeared in, including fiction, non-fiction, magazines, and news. This information enabled me to conduct a research on a great variety of issues concerning the use of word and the peculiarities of word choice for different sources such as fiction and non-fiction. Besides, it is possible to analyse the percentage of the appearance of modals in fiction and non-fiction. One of the limitations, in this regard, concerns the historical approach that, if used, could explain the frequency of use of certain words due to changes in the country and the world including economical factors, social and cultural development, and shift in lifestyle and values of the population. The British National Corpus provides researchers with the information on the variety of different word combinations. In this re spect, I was able to investigate the frequency of using modals in different setting in terms of the genre and parts of speech with which the modal occurred. The queries could be limited in terms of written and spoken language inserted into examples. In other words, the research turned out to be full of unexpected limitations. To be more exact, the limitations should have been imposed into the research mode so that I could get the clear data for analysis at the end of the investigation. However, this was not doe at the beginning of the research; so, I had to limit the number of queries and choose more objective and universal samples from all three corpora. In other words, the choice of data was likely to affect the results in an important way if the number of queries is not restricted.Advertising Looking for research paper on linguistics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Method Though the comparative analysis of the use of modals and quasi-modals was conducted by Mair and Leech (2006), it is necessary to view the frequency of use of certain modals and quasi-modals that were reported to have the lowest difference in American and British variants of English. In other words, the study is based on the findings by Mair and Leech (2006) who managed to identify the use of modals and quasi-modals in examples provided by American and British English language corpora. In this respect, the issue of primary importance is the decline of use of modals and increase in the number of quasi-modals used in the late twentieth – early twenty-first century. Though modals were used more frequently at the beginning of the reported period and the frequency of their use declined toward the end of the reported period, the frequency of use of quasi-modals was just the opposite and it increased toward the end of the same period. I searched for the frequency of use of the modals shall and should and quasi-modals be supposed to and need to. First, I entered the modal should into the entry boxes of all three corpora mentioned above including the Corpus of Contemporary American English, the Corpus of Historical American English, and the British National Corpus. This enabled me to see the changes in the use of the modal in a short period of time in the Corpus of Contemporary American English and the British National Corpus; also, I could trace more obvious changes in the frequency of use of the modal with the help of queries made through the Corpus of Historical American English. The next step I took was the same procedure with the modal shall, and quasi-modals be supposed to and need to. The final stage of the research presupposed analysis of data and relevant conclusion made on the basis of the findings. In this respect, I was able to see the changes that took place in the use of modals that were previously reported to have similar changes in both var ieties of English including British and American variants and quasi-modals that were previously reported to have a greater difference in changes in these two variants of English language. As reported by Mair and Leech, the modal shall was used less frequently by people who used the British variant of English (-43.7% compared to the data received in 1960s) and by people who used the American variant of English language (-43.8%). Similar changes can be observed with regard to the frequency of use of the modal should (-11.8% of British and -13.5% of American). The quasi-modals were used more frequently compared to the period of 1960s when the first set of data was received. Thus, the quasi-modal be supposed to was used more frequently in the British variant (+113.6%) and in the American variant (+6.3%) which shows a great difference in the variants. The quasi-modal need to was used more often as well (+249% in British and +123% in American). Results and Analysis The first set of data c omes from the comparison of styles and genres used by the Corpus of Contemporary American English and the British National Corpus. The following figure suggests the data received from the British National Corpus. Figure 1: Frequency of use of the modal should represented by the results from the British National Corpus. Section/use per million spoken fiction magazine newspaper non-acad academic miscellaneous 9,724.94 7,015.77 8,241.27 7,571.64 8,142.98 10,221.98 11,257.89 Key: non-acad – is the set of non-academic sources whereas written and spoken are not clearly differentiated. Thus, the British National Corpus provided the information concerning the genres and styles typical for the use of modal should. I turned out that the modal should is used more frequently in spoken language, in academic sources and in sources considered miscellaneous. These results enabled me to conclude that the frequency of the use of the modal should is still very high with regard to the r eported decline of the use. The next step concerned the use of the same modal traced with the help of the Corpus of Contemporary American English. Figure 2: Frequency of use of the modal should represented by the results from the Corpus of Contemporary American English. Section/use per million spoken fiction magazine newspaper academic 930.65 622.75 721.51 657.63 897.18 Though the non-academic and miscellaneous sources are not identified as separate subgenres, it is necessary to show that the difference between the British and the American variants is still very high as 9,724.94 words per million in the British variant is much larger than 930.65 words per million in the American variant of English. In this respect, the difference is already obvious though it is necessary to see the situation that occurred in the frequency of use of the modal should with the help of the results from the Corpus of Historical American English. This corpus enables me to claim that the frequency of use of the modal should declined greatly while comparing the results from different decades during the entire nineteenth century and the entire twentieth century. In this respect, the most frequently the modal should was used in the period of 1820s though even then the use of this modal was not as large as the current situation in the British variant of English as there was an average number of 1,649.88 words per million whereas the use of the same modal in the contemporary British variant of English equals an average figure of 7,423.46 words per million. The next modal that was analysed is shall. The first corpus that should be discussed in this section is the Corpus of Historical American English which provides us with the picture showing changes in the frequency of use of the modal shall comparing the nineteenth and twentieth century. In this respect, we can see that the decline is great, especially while comparing the results on the frequency of use of the modal shall in the early nineteenth century and the ones from the late twentieth century. Thus the results from the 1810s equal 1,924.31 words per million whereas the same figure is much smaller for the period of 1990-2000 (53.27 words per million). It is also notable that the most frequently the modal shall was used in fiction and in academic sources whereas spoken language, examples from magazines and newspapers show smaller frequency of the use of the modal shall. Figure 3: Frequency of use of the modal shall represented by the results from the British National Corpus. Section/use per million spoken fiction magazine newspaper non-acad academic miscellaneous 2,195.98 2,310.60 315.07 330.20 1,160.58 2,139.88 2,024.27 This figure shows that the results differ greatly with regard to the use of the modal shall in the American and in British variants of English. At the same time, the results concerning the genre of use partially coincide for two variants of English language though the British s poken language as well as examples from miscellaneous sources demonstrates the same or similar frequency as the ones from fiction and academic sources as well as in the American variant of English. Figure 4: Frequency of use of the modal should represented by the results from the Corpus of Contemporary American English. Section/use per million spoken fiction magazine newspaper academic 22.59 70.29 21.88 14.03 63.93 The results received from the Corpus of Contemporary American English are similar to those reported concerning the use of the Corpus of Historical American English where the use of the modal shall prevailed in fiction and academic sources while it was the least frequent in examples from newspapers (14.03 words per million). This figure can be compared to the results from the same genres for the British variant of English language where the frequency of use of the modal shall equals 2,310.60 words per million and 2,139.88 words per million for the academic sources . The next unit for analysis was the frequency of use of the quasi-modal be supposed to in British and American variants of English. It is necessary to note that this quasi-modal was analysed in terms of pure entries (supposed to was analysed in queries in order to ensure that all variants are included – be supposed to, is supposed to, are supposed to, am supposed to, ‘m supposed to, ‘re supposed to, etc.) In this respect, the results for entry supposed to differed greatly for the initial entry be supposed to. As this imposed some limitation on the analysis, I decided to restrict results to the absolute queries that were supposed to include all potentially relevant results. The results from the Corpus of Historical American English enable us to see that the obvious changes started in the 1930s when the frequency of use of the quasi-modal supposed to was characterised with the 43.21 words per million whereas every coming decade showed increased frequency of use of this quasi-modal leading to the results of 98.32 words per million for the period of 2000s. One of the most notable features of the frequency of use of the quasi-modal supposed to concerns the sources of examples as in all periods reported in the Corpus of Historical American English, spoken language provided us with the most frequent use of this quasi-modal. The results received from the Corpus of Contemporary American English differ slightly from the ones in the Corpus of Historical American English. Thus, we can see the difference from the figure: Figure 5: Frequency of use of the quasi-modal supposed to represented by the results from the Corpus of Contemporary American English. Section/use per million spoken fiction magazine newspaper academic 103.92 121.42 53.12 60.82 24.80 This figure shows that the main sources where the frequency of the use of the quasi-modal supposed to was higher than in the spoken language is the fiction. The results from the British National Co rpus are similar to the situation presented in the Corpus of Historical American English where spoken language shows the highest frequency of use of the quasi-modal supposed to. The final unit for analysis is the quasi-modal need to; as reported by Mair and Leech, the use of this quasi-modal increased dramatically with regard to the results from 1960s compared to the contemporary situation. We can clearly see the frequency of use of the quasi-modal need to with the help of results from the Corpus of Historical American English where the lowest frequency can be observed in the period of 1810s (2.54 words per million) while the highest frequency of use is typical of the period of 2000s (211.14 words per million). Figure 6: Frequency of use of the quasi-modal need to represented by the results from the British National Corpus. Section/use per million spoken fiction magazine newspaper non-acad academic miscellaneous 2,555.89 1,028.71 1,589.51 873.46 1,438.18 1,840.44 1,882.11 T his figure shows that the use of the quasi-modal need to was the most frequent in the spoken variant of the British English whereas the average frequency is about 1,601.19 words per million which is twice as high as the frequency of use of this quasi-modal in newspapers and is almost 1.5 as low as the frequency of use of the quasi-modal need to in spoken language. The results received from the Corpus of Contemporary American English provide us with the information similar to the one from the British National corpus which enables us to conclude that the frequency of use of the quasi-modal need to increased compared to the beginning of the early nineteenth century. Conclusion The use of modal words and combinations has changed over the last hundred years with regard to the data from the British national corpus (BNC), Corpus of Contemporary American English, and Corpus of Historical American English as the sources of primary research materials. Besides, it is necessary to note that the use of the modals shall and should differs from the changes in the frequency of use of quasi-modals supposed to and need to. In other words, the data from the corpora demonstrates certain tendencies when the frequency of use of modals declines contrasted to the frequency of use of quasi-modals which increases. The most obvious changes concern the spoken language where the use of quasi-modals supposed to and need to is higher than in all other genres and sources of data. However, the quasi-modal supposed to is reported to be frequently used in fiction rather than in spoken language according to the results received from the Corpus of Contemporary American English. At the same time, the frequency of use of the modals shall and should tends to decline compared to the results received in the early nineteenth century. Works Cited Collins, Peter. Modals and Quasi-Modals in English. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2009. Print. Facchinetti, Roberta, Manfred G. Krug, and Frank Robert Palmer (Eds.). Moda lity in Contemporary English. Berlin/New York: Walter de Gruyter, 2003. Krug, Manfred G. Emerging English modals: a corpus-based study of grammaticalization. Berlin/New York: Walter de Gruyter, 2000. Mair, Christian, and Geoffrey Leech. â€Å"Current Changes in English Syntax.† 2006. Accessed from https://www.lancaster.ac.uk/fass/doc_library/linguistics/leechg/mai_and_leech_2006.pdf. This research paper on Modals in Different Varieties of English was written and submitted by user Hadley Hendricks to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.